In the 16th century, numerous Dutch schoolmasters wrote their own dialogue books to teach the French language. Authors like Gabriel Meurier, Peeter Heyns, Gérard de Vivre, and Magdalena Valery used them for teaching boys as well as girls. These manuals propose conversations based on the day-to-day lives of the pupils and are thus particularly useful in studying the educational culture of the time. While the early modern Low Countries were famous for their high-quality education, the image of the strict learning environment and the widespread use of punishments persists. Our research takes a closer look at eight dialogue books to learn more about the place of play and games in early modern education in the Low Countries. Was it really ‘all work and no play’? And to what extent did the gender of the pupils influence the teaching methods?

Even qualified teachers did use punishments to obtain their learning goals. Children were sometimes threatened if they would not obey, for example, not listening and going for a swim could result in being ‘bloody beaten’ (Propos puerils by Meurier, f. 20v.). It is therefore no surprise that some children trembled with fear or avoided the teacher. But this treatment differed from school to school, as becomes clear when reading La Montaigne des pucelles by Magdalena Valery, a teacher at an all-girls school based in Leiden. Valery is selective in giving punishments: she doesn’t punish new pupils. Nevertheless, the authors often portrayed children who were eager to learn, especially subjects that were relevant to them. In one of the dialogues, the children say that they don’t want to learn the Galliard dance or make mannequins (Colloques by Meurier, f. P3r), they want to learn something more important. Some children even visited new schools, asking the teachers to become one of their pupils because their previous education didn’t suit them well. In general, we could say that the punishments didn’t keep the children away from learning; they still loved to read a book when waking up early in the morning.

This did not mean that time at school was always that serious. Sometimes children were allowed to play outside because it was said that it was good for soaking up the lessons learned at school. And multiple dialogues contain passages in which children talk about the joy they obtain from learning. They say, for instance, that it is easier to learn something matching their interests, and they talk specifically about their love and joy while learning a language. Yet, we have to keep in mind that these dialogues were written by the teachers and that they might be closer to motivational speeches than real or general thoughts of the pupils.

What is certain is that teachers tried to make language learning attractive. The theatre-like format of the dialogue books introduces characters and allows children to practise together. Moreover, they used wordplay (e.g.,‘Ie m’ardy mercredy, chez Iean Ioeudi’), songs, poetry (Figure 1), and rebuses (Figure 2 and 3) to teach the children French.

Playing should not only be understood figuratively, but also literally. Based on day-to-day activities, as these dialogue books are, multiple popular games like ‘le jeu de paumes’, ‘tirer à l’arc’, and ‘le patinage sur glace’ (tennis, archery, and ice skating) are mentioned. They figure among games nowadays almost forgotten (such as ‘crocher à la fosette’, ‘tirer de la sonde’, or ‘ruer l’oison’, respectively a type of ball game, swaying and throwing geese, see also Figure 4), while popular board games (like chess and backgammon) are less present, not played by kids, and generally considered inappropriate. It is actually quite common to come across a page filled with discussions on the rules or the stakes at risk of numerous different pastimes (Figure 5). Yet the lively group process of choosing what game to play stands in stark contrast with the actual schoolwork that often followed the individual progress of the children. Moreover, playing games clearly remained excluded from the curriculum since it was only possible to enjoy some free time after obtaining the permission of the schoolmaster

A closer look at these playful passages shows interesting differences when it comes to the age and gender of the children targeted by the authors. The youngest must be accompanied by a staff member or some elder pupils and their outings to the countryside often include some lessons on agriculture. Girls, on the contrary, are not granted the freedom to play outside of the schoolyard and do not practise games of skill that frequently, as shown by La Guirlande of Gabriel Meurier, who prefers presenting games like the ‘jeu Réal’ or ‘jouer sur la gargouille’ (pretending to be a queen and playing the flute). La Montaigne of Valery shows an even less playful learning environment. As one of the few female schoolmasters trying to make publicity for her own school, Valery offered a Protestant education devoid of vices and games. Her pupils only have the right to make music after a fruitful school day filled with learning, housekeeping, and handicrafts. Though music might even be considered too large a term, as these girls may sing spiritual music (psalms) or play the spinet, it is important to note that other dialogue books barely mention and appraise musical education at all.

While all different, these eight little dialogue books give us a good insight into the depiction of the late sixteenth-century learning environment in the Low Countries. Despite the sometimes bloody punishments, teachers tried to make the learning process as pleasing as possible by portraying children who loved to study. Wordplay, role-playing, and adapting the content of manuals to the school life of the pupils made the learning process lively and engaging. Moreover, the dialogue books contained multiple passages in which games were enumerated, free time was granted, and boys (not girls) could play outside.

This goes to show that even in the 16th century, teachers were conscious of the fact that students sometimes needed a break in order to perform even better afterwards. So the next time you are taking a break from studying a foreign language and putting it into practice by ordering a coffee, this honestly isn’t so haphazard after all; it is part of a long tradition.

Bibliography:

Dodde, N.L., and C. Esseboom. “Instruction and Education in French Schools: A Reconnaissance in the Northern Netherlands 1550-1700.” In Grammaire et Enseignement Du Français, 1500-1700, edited by Jan De Clercq, Nico Lioce, and Pierre Swiggers, pp. 39–60. Leuven: Peeters, 2000.

Haar, A.D.M. van de, « Entre chambre de rhétorique et salle de classe. Les rébus des rhétoriciens dans la pratique scolaire », Cahiers de Recherches Médiévales et Humanistes, n° 40, 2020 – 2, pp. 359-376.

Fernández Fraile, M.E., « L’enseignement des langues aux femmes au XVI^e siècle : Juan Luis Vivès et Gabriel Meurier », Documents Pour l’histoire Du Français Langue Étrangère Ou Seconde, n° 57, 2016, pp. 77–96.

The eight dialogue books:

Heyns, Peeter. IIII. Dialogues pueriles, en alleman et francois des qvatre saisons de l’an. Frankfurt am Main: Paul Brachfeld, 1588.

La Premiere et la seconde partie des dialogues francois pour les jeunes enfans. Het eerste ende tweede deel van de Francoische t’samensprekinghen overgheset in de Nederduytsche spraecke. Antwerp: Christophe Plantin, 1567.

Meurier, Gabriel. Colloqves, ou nouvelle invention de propos familiers: Non moins vtiles que tresnecessaires, pour facillement apprendre François et Flameng. Antwerp: Christophe Plantin, 1557.

Meurier, Gabriel. La gvirlande des ievnes filles, en François et Flamen, Antwerp: Jan van Waesberghe, 1580.

Meurier, Gabriel. Le Perroquet mignon des petits enfants françois-flameng. Antwerp: Jan van Waesberghe, 1580.

Meurier, Gabriel. Propos Puerils, Ordinairement Usez Es Escoles Françoises. Kinderredenen Fransoys En Duytsch. Rotterdam: Jan van Waesberghe, 1597.

Valery, Magdalena. La montaigne des pvcelles, en nevf dialogves, svr les noms des neuf Muses. Den Maeghden-Bergh, in negen t’samen-spraken, op de namen vande neghen Musen. Leiden: printed by Jan Paedts Jacobsz, 1599.

Vivre, Gerard de. Douze dialogues et colloques, traitans de diverses matieres. Antwerp: Jan van Waesberghe, 1574.

© Anna Baak, Sjoera Slooff and Leiden Arts in Society Blog, 2024. Unauthorised use and/or duplication of this material without express and written permission from this site’s author and/or owner is strictly prohibited. Excerpts and links may be used, provided that full and clear credit is given to Anna Baak, Sjoera Slooff and Leiden Arts in Society Blog with appropriate and specific direction to the original content.